<p>Inclusivity in global research questionnaire.</p>

A multi-level Bayesian model was used to reconstruct infection histories and antibody kinetics. The model identified 429 infections (95% credible interval 417–441), including 39 (9.1%) that had not been identified by traditional seroconversion-based thresholds. Antibody levels waned rapidly, with 48% (0.403–0.560) of the acute boost remaining after three months and only 5% (0.027–0.098) after one year.

Pre-Omicron infections generated stronger antibody boosts than Omicron infections. Responses varied, with individuals clustering into low and high responders. Cross-reactive responses extended across substantial antigenic distances - Omicron infections induced broader immunity.

Seroincidence was higher in Lilongwe than in Karonga (0.41 vs. 0.27 infections per person per three months), driven by the early 2022 Omicron wave. Reinfections were common, particularly among adults and urban residents. SARS-CoV-2 nAb responses following infection were heterogeneous and declined rapidly.

This rapid waning underscores the importance of vaccination for sustained protection, while cross-reactivity suggests only partial immunity from prior variants. Identifying reinfections is essential for understanding transmission and finding populations at higher repeat infection risk, particularly where routine surveillance is limited.</p></div>