Supplementary file 1_Women workers’ labour market engagement and financial autonomy: the mediating role of government initiatives in Kerala, India.pdf

Despite high literacy rates and progressive social indicators in Kerala, low female labour force participation points to deep-seated socio-cultural and institutional barriers. Drawing on Human Capital Theory, the Gender and Development Framework, and Empowerment Theory, the study constructs a comprehensive model incorporating cultural, economic, and policy determinants.

Because the sample comprises women who are already employed, the study examines labour market engagement—employed women’s active involvement in work, confidence in employability, access to job opportunities, and perceived professional growth—rather than labour force participation in its conventional sense. Using survey data collected from 1,357 women workers across five districts of Kerala and analyzed through Structural Equation Modelling in AMOS 28.0, the results indicate that cultural determinants are more strongly associated with women’s labour market engagement than economic factors alone.