Table · dataset · 2026
Global Distribution of Freshwater Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins (“Saxitoxins”) 1967–2025: Implications, Limitations, and Application to Risk Assessment
Listed in ZivaHub and HKU DataHub and DaYta Ya Rona and figshare and Loughborough Research Repository and UP Research Data Repository — shown once because both records carry DOI 10.1021/acs.est.6c05565.s002
Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins (PSPTs) (“Saxitoxins”) are a class of neurotoxins identified globally in freshwater and marine systems but are understudied in freshwater environments.
Description
We collected literature reports of PSPTs in natural systems from their first discovery in 1967 until 2025, with the aim of summarizing their occurrence. Freshwater PSPTs were commonly reported (>20% of waterbodies in 14/21 studies), with complex congener profiles including 21 primary congeners.
Saxitoxin (STX) represented only 18% of the total, suggesting that methods focused primarily on STX are not adequately protective of environmental health. The most common PSPT producing genera were species of Aphanizomenon, but over 40% of reports could or did not assign a producer to the identified toxins. While there were many analytical methodologies incorporated by localized studies, those investigating multiple waterbodies (>6) tended to use only one analytical method.
Read the rest (2 more)
Our exposure assessment was inhibited by this subset of studies having study-specific limitations, severely restricting the use of these data for risk assessment. Toxicological uncertainty further hampered risk assessment – dose–response data for acute consumption of PSPTs has been generated and assessed, but questions remain about the accuracy of the no-observed-adverse-effect-level. Chronic/sub-chronic PSP toxicity data has been collected in animal models but there are no regulatory guidelines that utilize these for guidance values.
The evidence indicates that PSPT production potential is widespread in freshwater environments, but most existing data do not accurately assess environmental concentration. Given these uncertainties, there is significant potential for harm from exposure to freshwater PSPTs.
Links
Where it is published
- DOI doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6c05565.s002 ↗
DOI / persistent id · from zivahub uct ac za
Catalogue records · 1
- OAI-PMH record api.figshare.com/v2/oai?verb=GetRecord&metadataPrefix=oai_dc&identifier=oai%3Af… ↗
metadata API · from zivahub uct ac za
Topics
- From keywords
- Astronomy & Astrophysics · Biochemistry and cell biology · Biochemistry and cell biology · Biochemistry and cell biology · Biochemistry and cell biology · Biochemistry and cell biology · Biochemistry and cell biology · Chemistry · Chemistry · Chemistry · Chemistry · Chemistry · Chemistry · Computer Science & AI · Computer Science & AI · Earth & Environmental Science · Earth & Environmental Science · Earth & Environmental Science · Earth & Environmental Science · Earth & Environmental Science · Earth & Environmental Science · Ecology · Ecology · Ecology · Ecology · Ecology · Ecology · Economics & Finance · Economics & Finance · Engineering · Engineering · Engineering · Engineering · Genetics · Genetics · Genetics · Genetics · Genetics · Genetics · Humanities · Humanities · Humanities · Humanities · Humanities · Humanities · Immunology · Immunology · Immunology · Immunology · Immunology · Immunology · Infectious diseases · Infectious diseases · Infectious diseases · Infectious diseases · Infectious diseases · Infectious diseases · Inorganic chemistry · Inorganic chemistry · Inorganic chemistry · Inorganic chemistry · Inorganic chemistry · Inorganic chemistry · Life Sciences · Life Sciences · Life Sciences · Life Sciences · Life Sciences · Life Sciences · Materials Science · Mathematics & Statistics · Medicine & Health · Medicine & Health · Medicine & Health · Medicine & Health · Medicine & Health · Medicine & Health · Microbiology · Microbiology · Microbiology · Microbiology · Microbiology · Microbiology · Ocean & Atmospheric Science · Ocean & Atmospheric Science · Ocean & Atmospheric Science · Ocean & Atmospheric Science · Ocean & Atmospheric Science · Ocean & Atmospheric Science · Psychology & Behavioral Science · Social Science · Social Science · Social Science · Social Science
Provenance · 6 source records, 99 field assertions
| Source | Key | Last seen | Raw |
|---|---|---|---|
| ZivaHub | oai:figshare.com:article/34027536 | 11 d ago | JSON v1 |
| HKU DataHub | oai:figshare.com:article/34027536 | 11 d ago | JSON v1 |
| DaYta Ya Rona | oai:figshare.com:article/34027536 | 11 d ago | JSON v1 |
| figshare | oai:figshare.com:article/34027536 | 10 d ago | JSON v1 |
| Loughborough Research Repository | oai:figshare.com:article/34027536 | 10 d ago | JSON v1 |
| UP Research Data Repository | oai:figshare.com:article/34027536 | 10 d ago | JSON v1 |
| Field | Assertion | Extractor | Evidence |
|---|---|---|---|
| access_level | source · zivahub uct ac za | connector:zivahub_uct_ac_za@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:field:320211 | mapping · dayta nwu ac za | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Infectious Diseases'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:field:320211 | mapping · zivahub uct ac za | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Infectious Diseases'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:field:320211 | mapping · figshare com | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Infectious Diseases'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:field:320211 | mapping · datahub hku hk | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Infectious Diseases'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:field:320211 | mapping · researchdata up ac za | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Infectious Diseases'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:field:320211 | mapping · repository lboro ac uk | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Infectious Diseases'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3101 | mapping · researchdata up ac za | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Cell Biology'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3101 | mapping · repository lboro ac uk | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Cell Biology'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3101 | mapping · figshare com | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Cell Biology'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3101 | mapping · dayta nwu ac za | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Cell Biology'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3101 | mapping · datahub hku hk | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Cell Biology'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3101 | mapping · zivahub uct ac za | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Cell Biology'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3103 | mapping · researchdata up ac za | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Ecology'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3103 | mapping · zivahub uct ac za | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Ecology'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3103 | mapping · repository lboro ac uk | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Ecology'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3103 | mapping · datahub hku hk | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Ecology'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3103 | mapping · figshare com | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Ecology'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3103 | mapping · dayta nwu ac za | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Ecology'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3105 | mapping · repository lboro ac uk | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Genetics'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3105 | mapping · datahub hku hk | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Genetics'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3105 | mapping · dayta nwu ac za | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Genetics'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3105 | mapping · figshare com | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Genetics'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3105 | mapping · zivahub uct ac za | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Genetics'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3105 | mapping · researchdata up ac za | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Genetics'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3107 | mapping · researchdata up ac za | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Microbiology'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3107 | mapping · zivahub uct ac za | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Microbiology'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3107 | mapping · datahub hku hk | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Microbiology'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3107 | mapping · repository lboro ac uk | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Microbiology'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3107 | mapping · figshare com | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Microbiology'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3107 | mapping · dayta nwu ac za | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Microbiology'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3204 | mapping · repository lboro ac uk | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Immunology'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3204 | mapping · datahub hku hk | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Immunology'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3204 | mapping · researchdata up ac za | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Immunology'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3204 | mapping · figshare com | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Immunology'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3204 | mapping · dayta nwu ac za | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Immunology'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3204 | mapping · zivahub uct ac za | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Immunology'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3402 | mapping · figshare com | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Inorganic Chemistry'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3402 | mapping · researchdata up ac za | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Inorganic Chemistry'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3402 | mapping · datahub hku hk | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Inorganic Chemistry'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3402 | mapping · dayta nwu ac za | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Inorganic Chemistry'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3402 | mapping · repository lboro ac uk | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Inorganic Chemistry'] |
| concepts[field].anzsrc:group:3402 | mapping · zivahub uct ac za | vocabulary-mapper@1.0.0 | keywords['Inorganic Chemistry'] |
| concepts[field].local:field:astronomy | mapping · figshare com | connector:figshare_com@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:chemistry | mapping · figshare com | connector:figshare_com@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:chemistry | mapping · zivahub uct ac za | connector:zivahub_uct_ac_za@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:chemistry | mapping · datahub hku hk | connector:datahub_hku_hk@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:chemistry | mapping · dayta nwu ac za | connector:dayta_nwu_ac_za@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:chemistry | mapping · repository lboro ac uk | connector:repository_lboro_ac_uk@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:chemistry | mapping · researchdata up ac za | connector:researchdata_up_ac_za@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:computer-science-ai | mapping · figshare com | connector:figshare_com@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:computer-science-ai | mapping · repository lboro ac uk | connector:repository_lboro_ac_uk@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:earth-environmental | mapping · dayta nwu ac za | connector:dayta_nwu_ac_za@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:earth-environmental | mapping · figshare com | connector:figshare_com@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:earth-environmental | mapping · zivahub uct ac za | connector:zivahub_uct_ac_za@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:earth-environmental | mapping · repository lboro ac uk | connector:repository_lboro_ac_uk@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:earth-environmental | mapping · researchdata up ac za | connector:researchdata_up_ac_za@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:earth-environmental | mapping · datahub hku hk | connector:datahub_hku_hk@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:economics-finance | mapping · repository lboro ac uk | connector:repository_lboro_ac_uk@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:economics-finance | mapping · figshare com | connector:figshare_com@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:engineering | mapping · repository lboro ac uk | connector:repository_lboro_ac_uk@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:engineering | mapping · researchdata up ac za | connector:researchdata_up_ac_za@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:engineering | mapping · dayta nwu ac za | connector:dayta_nwu_ac_za@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:engineering | mapping · figshare com | connector:figshare_com@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:humanities | mapping · zivahub uct ac za | connector:zivahub_uct_ac_za@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:humanities | mapping · dayta nwu ac za | connector:dayta_nwu_ac_za@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:humanities | mapping · researchdata up ac za | connector:researchdata_up_ac_za@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:humanities | mapping · repository lboro ac uk | connector:repository_lboro_ac_uk@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:humanities | mapping · figshare com | connector:figshare_com@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:humanities | mapping · datahub hku hk | connector:datahub_hku_hk@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:life-sciences | mapping · zivahub uct ac za | connector:zivahub_uct_ac_za@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:life-sciences | mapping · repository lboro ac uk | connector:repository_lboro_ac_uk@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:life-sciences | mapping · dayta nwu ac za | connector:dayta_nwu_ac_za@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:life-sciences | mapping · researchdata up ac za | connector:researchdata_up_ac_za@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:life-sciences | mapping · datahub hku hk | connector:datahub_hku_hk@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:life-sciences | mapping · figshare com | connector:figshare_com@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:materials-science | mapping · repository lboro ac uk | connector:repository_lboro_ac_uk@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:mathematics-statistics | mapping · repository lboro ac uk | connector:repository_lboro_ac_uk@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:medicine-health | mapping · researchdata up ac za | connector:researchdata_up_ac_za@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:medicine-health | mapping · dayta nwu ac za | connector:dayta_nwu_ac_za@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:medicine-health | mapping · repository lboro ac uk | connector:repository_lboro_ac_uk@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:medicine-health | mapping · datahub hku hk | connector:datahub_hku_hk@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:medicine-health | mapping · zivahub uct ac za | connector:zivahub_uct_ac_za@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:medicine-health | mapping · figshare com | connector:figshare_com@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:ocean-atmospheric | mapping · dayta nwu ac za | connector:dayta_nwu_ac_za@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:ocean-atmospheric | mapping · zivahub uct ac za | connector:zivahub_uct_ac_za@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:ocean-atmospheric | mapping · repository lboro ac uk | connector:repository_lboro_ac_uk@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:ocean-atmospheric | mapping · datahub hku hk | connector:datahub_hku_hk@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:ocean-atmospheric | mapping · figshare com | connector:figshare_com@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:ocean-atmospheric | mapping · researchdata up ac za | connector:researchdata_up_ac_za@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:psychology-behavioral | mapping · repository lboro ac uk | connector:repository_lboro_ac_uk@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:social-science | mapping · researchdata up ac za | connector:researchdata_up_ac_za@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:social-science | mapping · dayta nwu ac za | connector:dayta_nwu_ac_za@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:social-science | mapping · figshare com | connector:figshare_com@1.0.0 | |
| concepts[field].local:field:social-science | mapping · repository lboro ac uk | connector:repository_lboro_ac_uk@1.0.0 | |
| description | source · zivahub uct ac za | connector:zivahub_uct_ac_za@1.0.0 | /metadata/dc/description |
| license | source · zivahub uct ac za | connector:zivahub_uct_ac_za@1.0.0 | /metadata/dc/rights |
| publication_date | source · zivahub uct ac za | connector:zivahub_uct_ac_za@1.0.0 | |
| title | source · zivahub uct ac za | connector:zivahub_uct_ac_za@1.0.0 | /metadata/dc/title |