<p>Placebo test results for the CTS program.</p>

CTS, in contrast, targeted smaller patches at higher risk of deforestation along Guaviare’s agricultural frontier, offering targeted technical assistance and payments for a series of conservation and restoration commitments at farm level, including the adoption of silvopastoral practices. Considering these findings, we argue that distinct PES designs can play a complementary role in halting deforestation in the Colombian Amazon, and potentially in similar regions across tropical America.

We call for more sustained and scaled-up efforts in sustainable land use and forest conservation for smallholders, while recognizing that such initiatives will remain insufficient unless scaling is accompanied by substantially stronger territorial state presence and governance in areas contested by armed groups, as well as comprehensive land-use policy reform.</p></div>