Fast and Accurate Quartet Phylogenetic Inference Using Deep Learning Trained on Empirical DNA Alignments

While maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods remain the gold standard for phylogenetic analysis, they rely on simplifying assumptions and are computationally intensive. Recent machine learning approaches for phylogenetics offer speed advantages, but have several limitations: exclusive reliance on simulated data for training, inadequate handling of gaps, and sensitivity to input sequence order.

Here, we introduce IQ-NET (Intelligent Quartet NETwork), a deep learning framework that solves these limitations to infer four-taxon trees. IQ-NET estimates both tree topology and branch lengths directly from gapped alignments. IQ-NET outperforms existing machine learning methods in terms of accuracy, and obtained a 24-fold speedup compared with the widely used maximum likelihood software, IQ-TREE.